Is the IRA allergic to reading?

Sent to Reading Today (International Reading Association), Nov. 26, 2014

The International Reading Association appears to be allergic to reading. "Interrupting the cycle of word poverty" (Nov/Dec 2014) recommends every possible way of boosting vocabulary except the only way that is truly effective and efficient: extensive reading. 

William Nagy and colleagues have published compelling evidence showing that we gradually acquire vocabulary from reading for meaning, evidence that suggests that reading alone can do the job of building a large vocabulary, and that reading for meaning is more efficient than direct instruction for vocabulary development After studying the size of the vocabulary appearing in printed school English, Nagy and Richard Anderson concluded that “our findings indicate that even the most ruthlessly systematic direct vocabulary instruction could neither account for a significant proportion of all the words the children actually learn, nor cover more than a modest proportion of the words they will encounter in school reading materials”.
Certainly these results, many published in IRA journals, are worth mentioning.
Stephen Krashen
Professor Emeritus
University of Southern California
Member, Reading Hall of Fame

Original article: Overturf, B. 2014. Interrupting the cycle of word poverty. Reading Today, 32(3): 22-23.

Some sources:
Nagy, W. & Anderson, R. (1984). How many words are there in school printed English? Reading Research Quarterly, 19(3), 304-330.
Nagy, W., Herman, P., & Anderson, R. (1985). Learning words from context. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 233-255.
Nagy, W., R. Anderson, and Herman, P. (1987). Learning word meanings from context during normal reading. American Educational Research Journal, 24, 237-270.
Nagy, W., & P. Herman. 1987. Breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge: Implications for acquisition and instruction. In M. McKeown & M. Curtiss. (Eds.) The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 19-35), Hillsdale, NJ: Erbaum.

Interview with S. Krashen: compelling input, the origins of the theory, "proving" hypotheses, greatest professional influence

Interview published in Teaching Times #71, Fall 2014, p. 4. TESOL France  (www.Tesol-France.org).

We are delighted that you will be one of the speakers at the TESOL France 2014 Colloquium. What will you be talking about?

SK: I will talk about something that is obvious to most people, but was not obvious not to us, professional language teachers: Most people are not especially interested in acquiring second languages.  But they are very interested in hearing good stories, reading good books, and having interesting conversations. Fortunately, hearing stories, reading good books and having interesting conversations, in other words, getting COMPELLING comprensible input, is the best way to acquire language. 

For many, your distinction between language acquisition and language learning is appealing since it seems relatively intuitive. How far did intuition and your own learning experiences inform your hypotheses?

SK: The acquisition-learning hypothesis came from some problems in the research:

First, it appeared that sometimes adult second language acquirers' errors followed the "natural order" of acquisition (early acquired were most accurate), but sometimes they didn't. It was clear that the natural order was present in conversational situations, and the "unnatural" order occurred in "test" situations.

Second was a case history co-authored with Pauline Pon, an acquirer of English as a second language. We examined her own English production and found that she made many "careless" errors in speech, but could nearly always correct them when shown the errors on written down.

These two cases led to the same hypothesis: There are two systems at work – a natural "acquired" system identical to the system children use in first and second language acquisition and production, and a consciously "learned" system that adults who have had instruction use in situations when they have time to think about rules and are focussed on form.  So Pauline Pon did not worry about consciously learned rules in normal communication, but she could apply them when she was thinking about form and had time.

So far, your famous hypotheses on language acquisition remain hypotheses. Do you think it will ever be possible or even desirable to prove them?

SK: They will always be hypotheses because that's the way science works.  We can never "prove" any scientific hypothesis, because it is always possible that a counterexample will appear.  

But there have been no counterexamples to the original hypotheses, in my opinion. Also, the hypotheses have been shown to work quite well in different areas. They were based on research in adult second language acquisition, but subsequent reearch has shown that they work well for child second language acquisition, child language acquisition, and literacy development.  They also help explain why certain bilingual education programs are successful and others are not.

I have also been looking at research on animal language and so far the comprehension hypothesis shows promise.  I hope that the next frontier will be "exolinguistics": will the comprehension hypothesis help us acquire alien languages and will aliens be able to acquire our languages via comprehensible input?

What do you think is the single most important takeaway for a classroom teacher from your work?

SK: We acquire language and develop literacy when we understand messages, and for optimal acquisition, input should be compelling, so interesting that students forget it is in another language.

Your work has been incredibly influential for a great many people interested in Second Language Acquisition for both research and practical purposes. Who has been your greatest professional influence? 

SK: Frank Smith, for sure. When I read Reading without Nonsense in 1983, I discovered that he had come to similar conclusions about the importance of comprehension, based on very different evidence. He also presented his work far more coherently than I did. This stimulated my interest in reading and writing.

How would you like to be remembered?

SK: Let me change this question to a different one: What do I want to accomplish? In addition to more work in language and literacy development, I have a modest goal: Stop the world wide overtesting movement, the drive to "test the world" (see http://edushyster.com/?p=3559), led by the Common Core in the US, a movement that has no foundation in research, bleeds educational systems of needed money, and profits only testing and computer companies; a perfect example of "take from the needy and give to the greedy."

Extensive reading, not study, is the best way to increase vocabulary

Sent to the Korea Herald, November 22, 2014
Prof. Kwang-Yoon ("Proficient process to get linguistic edge, Nov. 20) suggests that programs offer students special texts with "key vocabulary" for students to study to improve their English.  He acknowledges that many studies show that self-selected reading for pleasure is a powerful source of vocabulary knowledge, but argues that a "modified extensive reading program" is called for because it is not realistic: students demand "quick, visible results." 
But self-selected pleasure reading is very fast: only 400 hours of self-selected voluntary reading (an hour a day for one year), will bring English learners to the 6000 word level, enough to recognize 98% of the words in Twilight and John Grisham's novels. Studies also confirm that gradually absorbing words through reading is more effective than direct study and the words are remembered longer.
Also, books we choose ourselves, that we want to read, are very pleasant, sometimes so pleasant it is hard for readers to stop reading.  It is doubtful that students will stick with word study from isolated passages.
The effort and cost of carefully assembling passages for word study would be much better spent making collections of very interesting and comprehensible books for English language students.

Beniko Mason
Shitennooji University Junior College,
Osaka, Japan

Jeff McQuillan
Center for Educational Development
Los Angeles, CA USA

Stephen Krashen
University of Southern California (Emeritus)
Los Angeles, CA USA

Original article: http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20141120000857

Built-In Orderliy Organized Knowledge, by R.J. Heathorn (1980)

LEARN WITH BOOK
In: Hills, Phillip J., ed. The Future of the Printed Word. Greenwood Press, 1980.
A new aid to rapid - almost magical - learning has made its appearance. Indications are that if it catches on all the electronic gadgets will be so much junk. The new device is known as Built-in Orderly Organized Knowledge. The makers generally call it by its initials, BOOK.
Many advantages are claimed over the old-style learning and teaching aids on which most people are brought up nowadays. It has no wires, no electric circuit to break down, No connection is needed to an electricity power point. It is made entirely without mechanical parts to go wrong or need replacement.
Anyone can use BOOK, even children, and it fits comfortably into the hands. It can be conveniently used sitting in an armchair by the fire. How does this revolutionary, unbelievably easy invention work?
Basically BOOK consists only of a large number of paper sheets. These may run to hundreds where BOOK covers a lengthy program of information. Each sheet bears a number in sequence so that the sheets cannot be used in the wrong order. To make it even easier for the user to keep the sheets in the proper order they are held firmly in place by a special locking device called a 'binding. Each sheet of paper presents the user with an information sequence in the form of symbols, which he absorbs optically for automatic registration on the brain.
When one sheet has been assimilated a flick of the finger turns it over and further information is found on the other side. By using both sides of each sheet in this way a great economy is affected, thus reducing both the size and cost of BOOK. No buttons need to be pressed to move from one sheet to another, to open or close BOOK, or to start it working.
BOOK may be taken up at any time and used by merely opening it. Instantly it is ready for use. Nothing has to be connected or switched on. The user may turn at will to any sheet, going backwards or forwards as he pleases. A sheet is provided near the beginning as a location finder for any required information sequence. A small accessory, available at trifling extra cost, is the BOOKmark. This enables the user to pick up his program where he left off on the previous learning session. BOOKmark is versatile and may be used in any BOOK. The initial cost varies with the size and subject matter.
Already a vast range of BOOKs is available, covering every conceivable subject and adjusted to different levels of aptitude. One BOOK, small enough to be held in the hands, may contain an entire learning schedule. Once purchased, BOOK requires no further upkeep cost; no batteries or

R. J. Heathorn

wires are needed, since the motive power, thanks to an ingenious device patented by the makers, is supplied by the brain of the user. BOOKs may be stored on handy shelves and for ease of reference the program schedule is normally indicated on the back of the binding.
Altogether the Built-in Orderly Organized Knowledge seems to have great advantages with no drawbacks. We predict a big future for it.

Reading aloud to dogs: What it does and what it doesn't do

Sent to American Libraries Magazine, Nov. 14, 2014

I would like to suggest that reading to dogs ("Dog Therapy,” November/December, 2014), does not help children improve their reading ability directly, but it may have positive indirect benefits.

Research on reading consistently supports one conclusion: Children improve their reading ability by reading books that are comprehensible and interesting, when they understand and are interested in what is on the page.

There is no scientific evidence that children improve by reading aloud to dogs (or to humans). Reading aloud is rarely reading for meaning. Only reading for meaning, understanding the message on the page, promotes literacy development.

I suggest that reading to dogs helps young readers indirectly: As "Dog Therapy" states in the first sentence, reading to animals may help children "get comfortable" with reading. The few studies done so far support this: they show that children who read to dogs regularly improve in "fluency," that is, reading speed. This is not the same as improving in the ability to understand texts. Increased comfort with reading, and associating reading with pleasure, however, could lead to more interest in books and more reading for meaning, which in turn means more literacy development.

Stephen Krashen

Sources:'
Lane, H. B., & Zavada, S. D. W. (2013). When reading gets ruff: Canine-assisted reading programs. Reading Teacher 67, 87-95.
Paddock, C. 2010 Dogs helped kids improve reading fluency.  http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/186708.php
Smith, Corrione Serra 2008. An Analysis and Evaluation of Sit Stay Read: Is the Program Effective in Improving Student Engagement and Reading Outcomes? Doctoral dissertation, National Louis University.
Smith, M. and Meehan, C. Canine buddies help youth develop reading skills. No date. http://ucanr.edu/delivers/?impact=800&delivers=1

Conversation with Star Trek: How does the Universal Translator work?

Letter to Andre Bormanis, of Star Trek, written around 2001

The first episode of Enterprise included a language lesson that was unworthy of the 22rd century. In fact,
it was unworthy of the beginning of the 21st century.
It employed a methodology that was discredited decades ago. In the class, taught by Ensign Sato, cadets were taught an alien language by listening to the teacher model a sentence, attempting to repeat the model, and having their efforts corrected by the teacher, a
method very similar to what is known as the audio-lingual method. This method have been repeatedly demonstrated to be an extremely inefficient and in
fact painful way of acquiring another language.

The theory of second language acquisition with the most supporting evidence maintains that we do not acquire language when we speak it, or when we get our errors corrected. It is also not the result of learning and memorizing grammar rules. Rather, we acquire language when we understand it, when we understand what people tell us, and when we understand what we read. According to this view, speaking is a result of language acquisition, not a cause, and grammatical accuracy develops gradually, as language acquirers receive more comprehensible input. The entire process of language acquisition is subconscious; while it is happening, the acquirer is not aware it is happening. In addition, language acquirers are generally not aware of the rules they have acquired; this knowledge is represented subconsciously in the brain.

A class consistent with this view of language acquisition would look very different from the one Ensign Sato was teaching. In such a class (termed “Natural Approach”), the role of the teacher is to provide students with interesting and comprehensible messages in the second language. For example, Ensign Sato might be telling a simple story, using pictures and other objects to make the story more comprehensible.

Students would be free to respond using either the language they are acquiring or in English. If they chose to respond in the second language, their errors would not be corrected. Also, they would be encouraged to indicate when they were not understanding, and the teacher would be very alert to signs of incomprehension.

Ensign Sato might also use a technique called Total Physical Response (developed by Prof. James Asher of San Jose State University), giving students commands, and modeling the movements called for; for example,
she might command the students to sit down, and
actually sit down herself, command them to stand up,
and stand up herself, command them to raise their
right hand, and do so herself, etc.. Her movements
help make the commands comprehensible. Gradually, the commands get more complicated, as students’ competence increases, and the physical movements can be part of a game.

Methods based on the principle of comprehensible input have been a consistent winner in the research for beginners and for intermediate level students.
Students in these methods perform much better than students in traditional, grammar-based methods when the test used is communicative (eg conversation, reading). When tested on grammar, students in comprehensible input-based methods do as well as grammar students, or slightly better.

The Star Trek Universal Translator operates on the
principle of comprehensible input. When the UT absorbs
a new language, it does not produce examples to see if
they are right (output plus error correction); rather,
it relies solely on input, gradually acquiring the
language as it understands what it hears. This gradual
process of acquisition via input is demonstrated in
the Deep Space Nine episode 30 (Sanctuary).
In this episode the UT is, at first, unable to
translate what DS9 visitors, the Skrreeans are saying. Gradually, the translator succeeds. DS9 officers are at first only
able to understand individual words, then larger
units, whole sentences, and then everything the
Skrreeans say. What is interesting here is what the UT did not
do: It did not kick in right away, with crude attempts
at translation, have its efforts corrected, and did
not then try again. Rather, it went through a “silent period” of no or limited output.

The UT thus works the same way as the human brain does in acquiring language, gradually acquiring more of the language as it understands it better.

Language clearly plays a central role in the Enterprise series. Star Trek should at least be up to date on research in this area, and rely of what is known in 2001 rather than the state of the art in 1960.

I can provide extensive documentation of the validity of this approach, as well as demonstrations of lessons.

Stephen Krashen, Ph.D.
Emeritus Professor of Education University of Southern California

Dear Stephen:

Thanks for your letter; I thought I'd responded to you shortly after I received it, but evidently not. Blame the combination of 80 hour work weeks and aging gray matter on my confusion...

Your points of course are well taken. In more recent episodes, we've tried to show ensign Sato encouraging aliens to speak and recording their language to obtain the beginnings of a "translation matrix." She also uses her own knowledge of linguistics and the numerous alien languages she's already learned figure out the basics of an alien grammar and program the UT.

The real problem on a show like Enterprise is time. We only have
44 minutes and 33 seconds to tell our stories, so we can't spent
too much screen-time watching Hoshi work her UT. But I hope we are at least giving viewers the sense that the UT is a kind of learning machine, acquiring language in a way similar to the way children learn, albeit at a much accelerated rate (I think we can be granted
a little dramatic license on that).

I hope that featuring a linguist as a regular character on the show will, if nothing else, encourage kids to believe that the subject
is cool and possibly fun to learn. I think it's utterly
inexcusable that primary school students in this country aren't required to learn a second language, given how easily children can learn language.

Thanks again for your letter. I do appreciate feedback from experts, and try to incorporate what I learn from them in our scripts. Hope you continue to enjoy the show.

Sincerely, Andre Bormanis

Date: Thu, 3 Jan 2002 10:01:00 -0700
To: Andre Bormanis Subject: Re: language acquisition and the universal translator

Thanks for your note. Yes, the subsequent UT material on Enterprise has been consistent with how I think the UT works to both acquire and translate at the same time.

Just for the record, our research strongly indicates that adults
acquire language the same way children do and the way the UT does, by understanding messages. Not by learning grammar, but from listening, conversing, and reading.

A note on Ensign Sato:

Our research also shows that some people are perfectionist with language, reluctant to use it until they have consciously learned
all the rules. This is a bad strategy, because it inhibits communication, and hurts language acquisition, because it means less input. Ensign Sato has tendencies in these directions. Recall that in Fight or Flight, Archer had to force her to speak to the aliens even though she hadn't completely mastered the language yet. This was a good scene.

I think that Sato is a good character, and yes, featuring a linguist does a lot for linguistics and language education.

Notes on Alien Language

S. Krashen

Aliens

It is possible that alien language will be completely different from human languages. McKenna (1991) has suggested that aliens are already here and are already communicating with (some of) us: the aliens are psilocybin mushrooms and communication happens when we eat them. 

Communication with aliens has been reported in accounts of UFO alien abductions.  In the vast majority of cases, communication from alien to human is telepathic (e.g. Fuller, 1966, Jacobs, 1998).  It is not clear whether the aliens understand spoken language; Jacobs argues that human-alien communication is also telepathic (http://www.ufoabduction.com/telepathy5.htm).  Clearly, research in this area has only begun.

Science-fiction: Star Trek

Science-fiction writers often assume that at least some aliens will use ordinary human-type language, or languages that are easily translated into human language by translating devices.

The universal translator of Star-Trek has little trouble doing this, acquiring and translating at the same time. Its occasional problems and hesitations reveal that it operates on the principle of comprehensible input: the translator does not try to produce and then adjust its system when the communication fails (comprehensible output) nor does it get corrected. Rather, it listens and understands, and gradually acquires the system (see e.g. Star Trek Deep Space Nine, Episode 30: Sanctuary).

In general, Star Trek gets a mixed report card on language acquisition theory. In the first episode of the series Star Trek Enterprise, Ensign Sato was observed using a version of the audio-lingual method in teaching an alien language at Star Fleet academy (Star Trek Enterprise, Episode 1: Broken Bow). But in a subsequent episode, Sato presented a perfect portrayal of a Monitor over-user (Krashen, 1981), hesitant to speak without a firm conscious knowledge of the grammatical system of an alien language. Captain Archer persuaded her that the survival of the Enterprise was more important than the subtleties of the future tense.

Fuller, J. (1966) The Interrupted Journey. New York: Berkley Publishing Corporation.

Jacobs, D. (1998) The Threat. New York: Simon and Schuster.

McKenna, T. (1991) The Archaic Revival. New York: HarperCollins.